The instructional design of gamification: Plan before you play, PART 1

What a journey over the last 7 weeks!

All I wanted to do was to learn more about instructional design in gamification.

Sounds simple, right?

Not so much. . . .

I have a fully online course I am trying to gamify (and gamify well), but as I concentrate on redesigning the course, I  realize how much more I need to know than merely the course content.  THAT I have down pat. I have tasks and learning objectives and final products which currently live in 3D Game Lab where students earn badges and awards for completing the various tasks.

To be effective community college administrators, my students need to learn about all facets of the community college  - faculty issues, student development, instruction, fundraising, housing, sports,  governance, workforce development..... I have readings on all of these topics, and, of course, students could read, complete a few activities to interact with the material and with one another, but  what will that really lead them to learn?   Will they really leave this class with a better understanding of the various units within the college and how they function, the interdependence as well as the independence of each unit?

Students in this program work a 40-50 hour week, so I try to be mindful as I craft assignments and course-related tasks. I am also aware that students enter the program with differing amounts of knowledge and experience in the community college, so they need options to meet their needs.

I see several pathways for this course:

Path A: (the dream) To create a simulation in which students basically build a CC from the ground up, choosing the type of governance,  identifying the various degrees and curricula (credit and non-credit) to be offered, hiring faculty and staff, setting up schedules, enrolling students, working with a foundation, setting up a budget, and so forth.  I teach decision-making that is research-based and data-driven, so students will review the research as they craft their own CC.  At the end of the course, students will share their colleges and compare notes. This could actually be expanded for use in several of their courses. ...ah....my dream creation. . . .

Path B: To create an interactive application/website/platform where students would "tour" the community college I have created, meeting avatars along the way to give them an overview of each unit/topic and guiding students to readings and then to various activities to allow them to interact with the content and apply their learning to their CC sites.

Path C: To create a series of tasks associated with each unit, where students complete from a menu of tasks, according to "credit earned" from previous experience. (current course organization).

So, possibilities exist, and I want to provide a stellar learning experience.  I realize this may take time, and I may have to design in phases.

That is fine - but the compulsive part of me wants to do it well - now.

The researcher in me says, "Go to the peer-reviewed research to find your answer."

So... I did....and this task has taken  - and is taking - quite a bit of time. . . .

Journey through the research

I quickly found that using some form of gamification instructional design as a search term was not working. Broadening the search to use gamification design did yield more results. Gamification design sometimes referred to web design or the appearance, the attractiveness of the game on the web (Hsu, Chang, & Lee, 2013). Other times it encompassed the MDA (mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics) framework of understanding games and how gamification works (Elverdam & Aarseth, 2007; Kim, 2015; Robson, Plangger, Kietzmann, McCarthy, & Pitt, 2015).

Ah, something useful!

MDA Framework of gaming design

This MDA framework or model breaks down  games into three components from the users' perspective: rules, system, and fun.  From the designer's perspective, this turns into  mechanics. dynamics, and aesthetics (Kim, 2015; Robson, Plangger, Kietzmann, McCarthy, & Pitt, 2015).

Wow!  Users and designers...what a great idea!

Mechanics involve the  distinct set of rules that dictate the outcome of interactions within the system. Points, badges, leader boards, statuses, levels, quests, countdowns, tasks/quest/missions, and other particular rules and rewards all fall under the category of game mechanics (Kim, 2015).

Three different types of mechanics are extremely important in games and in gamified experiences: set up mechanics, rule mechanics, and progression mechanics (Robson, et al., 2015). 

Set up mechanics include what shapes the environment of the experience.  This includes the setting and objects, and how those objects are distributed to the players. This also includes who the player is playing against - are they known or unknown? internal or external? It is in this component where designers determine the spatial dimensions of the virtual world along with regulating when the experience will happen (i.e., real-time or turn-based and finite end or infinite play).  Player structure is also part of game mechanics: how many can play? Is it single or multi-player? Single or multiple teams? Strangers, friends, or allies? (Elverdam & Aarseth, 2007).

Rule mechanics shape the goal of the gamified experience (Elverdam & Aarseth, 2007), describing permissible actions as well as constraints that limit those actions to create pressure for the players (Kelly, 2012). If players make the same decisions each time they play, will the results be the same, or is there some element of chance? Do interactions with other players impact the outcome? Rule mechanics can also be topological or time-based. Topological includes spaces where players land - are they rewarded for landing and checking in? Time-based mechanics address whether players have to react within a specific time period and how resources build up or deplete. Objectives-based rule mechanics refers to the effects of specific circumstances, such as completing one level to unlock the next (Robson, et al., 2015).

Progression mechanics dictate the reinforcements present in the experience (behaviors with rewarding outcomes are likely to be repeated in the future). This can be done with badges, achievement awards, levels, resources, and such.  The achievements - or rewards - must be valuable to the player or the player may  lose interest.....and stop playing. Having a balance of rewards is most desirable - after all, if everyone earns the top prize, then how much is the top prize really worth?

Mechanics form the structure for the game experience. On their own, however, mechanics are not enough to change behaviors or boost one's performance. Game dynamics and emotions or aesthetics animate the game experience and facilitate behavior change. It is this interdependence between mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics that signals the designer what changes need to be made to the mechanics to result in behavior changes.

Dynamics refer to the principles that create and support aesthetic experience. Unlike the game mechanics set by the designer, game dynamics describe in-game behaviors and strategic actions and interactions that emerge during play (Camerer, 2003). Examples of game dynamics include behavioral momentum, feedback, progress, time pressure, and certain abilities that game avatars can develop (Kim, 2015). Dynamics are difficult to predict and can lead to some unexpected behaviors and outcomes which can be either positive or negative. The challenges for designers, then, is to anticipate the types of dynamics that can emerge and develop the mechanics of the gaming experience accordingly.

(Robson, Plangger, Kietzmann, McCarthy, & Pitt, 2015)

Aesthetics encompass the various emotional goals of the game: sensation (game as sense-pleasure), fantasy (game as make-believe), narrative (game as drama), challenge (game as obstacle course), fellowship (game as social framework), discovery (game as uncharted territory), expression (game as self-discovery), and submission (game as pastime) (Kim, 2015). Aesthetics, then, are the result of how players follow the mechanics then generate the dynamics.  Playing games should be fun and appealing. Assuming that players will stop playing if they do not enjoy themselves, then creating player enjoyment should be the main goal (Robson, et al., 2015).


The MDA framework allows us to consider the game from two perspectives at the same time - we can see the game from the viewpoint of the user as well as from that of the designer...making this a very useful design...particularly if a designer also plays games.

The next step on this journey...

Hmmm...   The MDA model certainly provides opportunities for planning and a great checklist of items to consider....but I need something else to help me in this journey to gamify well.

Reading about MDA generated several questions to be answered:

• How do I motivate players and keep them motivated to play?

• How do I meet the goal of player enjoyment?

• In my dream game, the journey is the learning, not the final score or the badge. So how do I create a game experience that allows players to learn about the community college, to interact with community college "employees" and "students" and then complete the experience? 

 Let's see where this journey takes me next: The Game Object Model II (Amory, 2007).

 References

Amory, A. (2007). Game object model version II: A theoretical framework for educational game development. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55, 51-57.

Camerer, C. (2003). Behavioral game theory: Experiments in strategic interaction. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Elverdam, C., & Aarseth, E. (2007). Game classification and game design construction through critical analysis. Games and Culture, 2(1), 3-22.

Hsu, S. H., Chang, J. W., & Lee,  C.C. (2013). Designing attractive gamification features for collaborative storytelling websites. CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 16(6), 428-435.

Kelly, T. (2012). Real gamification mechanics require simplicity, and, yes, game designers can do it. Available at http://techcrunch.com/2012/12/08/real-vs-fake-gamification-mechanics/

Kim, B. (2015, February/March). Game mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics. Library Technology Reports, 51(2), 17-19.

Robson, K., Plangger, K., Kietzmann, J. H., McCarthy, I., & Pitt, L. (2015, July). Is it all a game? Understanding the principles of gamification. Business Horizons, 58(4), 411-420.

Merrill + ADDIE = MADDIE

I tend to view adult education - graduate education in particular - as professional development...sometimes corporate training...and ADDIE fits that bill perfectly!

Its 5 phases of Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate  provide an extremely useful framework through which to view design and development of professional development training.

ADDIE easily lends itself to adult learning by providing a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance tools. It's cyclical, rather than a linear approach, and it provides for frequent evaluation at each phase, with constant "tweaking."

I want to emphasize, however, that ADDIE is more of a project management tool than an instructional design model. As such it has a strong pre-planning and design phase.

Merrill's first Principles of Instruction merges well with ADDIE. Centering around creating learning experiences that are focused on authentic problems or tasks, this model aims to guide students through learning about, reflecting on, and solving problems and tasks.The four principles are Activation, Demonstration, Application, and Integration.

How might a merger between these two instructional design models appear? What issues need to be addressed in an Instructional Design Model for adult learners? What, if anything, needs to be added to the new model?

Let's call this merger MADDIE!

This SpicyNodes below depicts this mashup, and a written explanation follows:



MADDIE Phase 1: Material
Make the material relevant.  Not part of the original ADDIE, Merrill proposes the relevancy of the material is extremely important to adult learners.  Questions to be pondered include

• Is the topic problem- and task-centered?
• Can learners be engaged in solving real world problems and tasks?

 
MADDIE Phase 2: Analysis
The ADDIE analysis phase is the pre-planning phase where one thinks about the training to be offered. Designers ponder the design of the course or training, audience, goals, objectives, identify content, identify environment and delivery, consider instructional strategies and assessment, along with formative and summative assessment....Think about these items. Research best practices.

Merrill's model does not really provide a "thinking" phase where the designer pre-plans and readies him- or herself to design. His Activation phase, however, can be integrated into the ADDIE Analysis phase. During Merrill's Activation existing knowledge is retrieved or activated as a foundation for the new knowledge or learning. 

Several questions guide this "thinking" process:

• What pre-existing knowledge do the learners bring?
• What is the gap between what the learners already know and what they need to know?
• What do you need to teach?
• Do you need to do a pre-test to see "where they are" and "where you need to begin"?
• Will you need to provide a review with the students?
• Who are the learners and what are their characteristics?
• What is the desired new behavior?
• What are the specific learning objectives (outcomes) for this course?
• Are the objectives based on accreditation agency, program, or university mission requirements? 
• What LEVEL of learning will you target for learning outcomes?
• What types of learning constraints exist?
• What are the delivery options (face-to-face, online, hybrid)?
• What are the pedagogical considerations?
• What types of learning need to happen? 
• Knowledge
• Skills
• Attitudes  
• What adult learning theory considerations apply?
• What constraints might impact the delivery of this course/training?
• What is the timeline for project completion?

MADDIE Phase 3: Design
ADDIE's Design phase encompasses creation of a blueprint of the course or training on paper.  In this phase the designer starts developing the overall structure of the course, the content topics, the Goal of the instruction in general terms, the specific learning objectives, content that will be used (documents, PowerPoint, etc.), instructional strategies to be used, exercises, resources, media selection, assessment strategies, due dates, specific tools that will allow the designer to accomplish these.

This is also the point at which the designer structures the learning event, (i.e., the sequence of instructions the learners will use to work them through the content and learning strategies in each of the units. The Design phase is a systematic and very specific approach. Details.  Planning. Constantly evaluating and re-evaluating. 

Merrill does not really have a  blueprint design phase, just somehow expects designers to move from identifying the task to..BOOM! creating the content and building the course.

Adding the Merrill phase of Demonstration allows developers to truly design for the adult learner as  they identify the learner's existing knowledge  to use as a foundation for new knowledge. Merrills's questions posed in phase 1 and phase 2 actually integrate much better here into the MADDIE's Design phase. Merrill's Application and Integration phases could be integrated here as well as they deal with quality of instruction.

The Design phase, then, results in a very complete blueprint for the course or training,
contains a series of tasks guided by overarching questions (questions combined from ADDIE and from Merrill's Demonstration, Application, and Integration phases):

Overarching Questions

Designer Tasks

Does the instruction make use of or activate learners’ prior knowledge as a foundation for the new learning, including cognitive structures to help organize the new knowledge? Is there an opportunity to demonstrate previously acquired knowledge or skill? Does the instruction help learners see the relevance of the problem task and boost confidence in their ability to complete the task successfully? Does the instruction involve real world problems and tasks relevant to the learner? Does the instruction show the learners what they’ll be able to do at the end of the learning experience? Does the instruction include the components or chunks required for the successful completion of the problem or task? Does the instruction show multiple examples of the problem or task?

Document the instructional, visual, and technical design strategy by using a blueprint  or storyboard designed to cover the entire training Identify learning objectives  and activities for each unit Apply instructional strategies according to intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) Identify formative and summative assessment Design the user interface and the user experience Create a prototype Apply visual design/graphic design

MADDIE Phase 4: Development
The course or training has been planned: now it it time to develop the training or course - to build it...

ADDIE's Development Phase involves the developers creating and assembling the content assets and activities that were planned in the design phase. Programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to any feedback given.  Again, Merrill does not really address this issue separately, but items addressed in the Demonstration phase can certainly be re-visited here in the form of review. Feedback is an extremely important aspect of this phase, and several questions (not posed in either model) need to guide this:

• Does the instruction flow easily from one topic to the other, one unit to the next?
• Is an orientation module or unit provided, one that introduces the learner to the expected experience, assignments, assessments, and such?
• Are activities and assessments aligned with learning objectives?
• Is feedback provided after practice?
• Are multiple types of feedback provided?
• Is coaching or scaffolding available to learners? 
•  Are examples consistent with the content being taught? E.g. examples and non-examples for concepts, demonstrations for procedures, visualizations for processes, modeling for behavior? 
• Are learner guidance techniques employed? 
• Learners are directed to relevant information?
• Multiple representations are used for the demonstrations?
• Multiple demonstrations are explicitly compared?
• Is media relevant to the content and used to enhance learning?
• Does instruction encourage learners to transfer learning to everyday contexts?
• Are learners given  an opportunity to publicly demonstrate their new knowledge or skill?
• Are learners given the opportunity to create, invent, and explore new and personal ways to use their new knowledge or skills?

MADDIE Phase 5: Implementation
Phase 1 (Material) identified the topic. In phase 2 (Analyze) the designer pre-plans.  Phase 3 (Design) sees the creation of the blueprint. Phase 4 (Development) builds the training.   

So, what's next?

To implement -  to USE what was just built!

Implementation has several components: (1) a pre-flight course check, (2) the first few days check, (3) instruction begins check, and (4) formative feedback in each module or unit.  

Pre-flight course check. Before students are added to the course or before it is "published," designers need to double-check the course:

• Check start/end dates, due dates, etc., for
  • Topics to be covered
  • Assignments
  • Quizzes
  • Discussions postings
• Check settings for
  • Assignments
  • Quizzes
• Check
  • Links in learning modules
  • Student activities to make sure they are clear and correlate with content in menu
The early days of class. After the course begins, the designer now needs to concentrate on Orientation (This should, obviously, have been built in the Development phase, but now it is time to make sure students "orient" themselves to the training or course.)

This orientation needs to incorporate a variety of activities, such as

• Students read the welcome page.
• Students work through the "Start Here" information.
• Students introduce themselves. (This creates a sense of community.)
• Provide feedback to some or all of the introductions.
• If the training uses audio or video, have the students test it before they actually need to use it.
• Make sure the students understand all the course policies as outlined in the "Start Here" module. Ask if there are any questions.
• Students take the "Student Survey" if you desire to get information from them.
• Give a quiz over the "Start Here" module? (optional)
• Announce when the students should begin working.
• Be vigilant to questions from students; check email and discussions frequently (at least for the first week), and respond in a timely manner.
 This can be accomplished with students working through a module themselves but also with students video-conferencing with the instructor. Gathering feedback as this process evolves allows the designer to "tweak."   

The instruction begins. One students are "oriented" to the course or training, the real instruction begins.  Designers may be adding to the course as follows:

• Post a discussion to reinforce what the students should be doing.
• During the first week, ask "How's it going? This helps the students know you genuinely care about their experience in your course, and it could alert you to any potential problems.  
 

Formative feedback in each module. During Implementation, we begin to collect  formative feedback to help us see what is working and not working. This should have already been set up in our course for every learning module. Open-ended questions get the best results. For example:


• What do you like best about this learning unit?
• What do you like least about this learning unit?
• How would you improve this learning unit?
You have access to this feedback at any time. It is recommended that you read the feedback on a frequent basis, and make adjustments to the course as necessary.

MADDIE Phase 6: Evaluation 
This phase is really continuous and is not saved until last. The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Merrill does not really address the evaluation portion - something extremely necessary to learning! 
In addition to using specific course assignments, summative evaluation could also entail using the questions below in addition to carefully reviewing each module in light of the overarching questions posted in preceding phases.

• Did the students achieve expected learning outcomes?
• What have you learned?
• How can you make the course better?
 

MADDIE, in conclusion
ADDIE, as a project management tool provides a fantastic process for planning, developing, and building....but is somewhat weak as to the instructional component. Merrill's First Principles is weak on the planning but provides a strong structural framework for the instruction and evaluation pieces.

Combining the two models into MADDIE strengthens both models and may well be the one I decide to adopt in course design.

UDL in my world . . . .

Universal Design for Learning (UDL for short) fits a lot of what I do in course building for adult learners, incorporating what I have learned through trial-and-error over the last few decades. ...but this also harkens back to the learning styles debate. This debate has been going on since the 90's and has had higher education faculty and student development personnel pretty fired up over the years...do learning styles exist?  should we teach to all learning styles at once? what happened to the student responsibility to learn? how can faculty possibly teach to all styles at one time?

UDL seems to take all of this into consideration and, recently, has started applying this model to adult learners (UDL in Postsecondary Ed and Universal Design for Learing in Higher Education: A Guide).  It's wonderful to see this model applied to a level other than K-12 (apologies to all of my K-12 teaching friends).

So... I decided to take a look at the course syllabus for one of my online courses to see how I have accidentally used UDL.  I used the term accidentally as I have not designed this course with the original intention of  following UDL principles....and this course is currently in redesign for fall 2015.

I teach a fully online course on budget and finance in the community college, a course that many students try to delay taking as they fear budgets, are uncomfortable with the thought of looking at expenses in higher education, and well, let's face it - it just doesn't sound that interesting!

Let's begin exploring the syllabus.


According to the UDL Syllabus example posted by UDL On Campus, my current course syllabus follows some of the UDL principles....others not so much. This UDL Syllabus Rubric is a great resource for reviewing a syllabus...and knowing just what adjustments need to be made. 

Syllabus Format 

The syllabus is available in several formats. first, I have a syllabus page in he LMS where assignments are linked to their complete descriptions.  I also provide what I term a "traditional" syllabus which is a google doc (not very traditional, I suppose.). Finally, I provide my version of an Interactive syllabus which is an infographic with links to assignments and videos. 

This syllabus component meets the Exemplary rating on the syllabus design rubric for length, accessibility, and visibility.

Contact with Instructor

This syllabus provides several methods of contact although this could be improved. I currently include my university email, my office phone number, and my virtual office hours location in Webex. I used to post a Skype link but deleted that account due to the spam and "propositions" I frequently received.  Also, Skype needed updating frequently, requiring a new download, so it just became more problematic than it was worth. Office hours are flexible - in fact, I do not give specific hours.  the syllabus includes a statement directing students to our LMS where they can sign up for a video-conference during one of the 30 hours or so each week that I am available. I also meet with students outside of those hours. In the past I have tried Virtual Office Hours at a specified time, where I was tied to my desk for 3 hours a night, but that was just not convenient for either my students or myself...so I provide lots of opportunities to meet from noon until 830 pm on most days, with the availability to meet until 10 pm as needed. In the last three years, no one has needed.

This fall I plan to experiment with Twitter Office Hours, providing students with a course hashtag and my user name. I will select two 3 hour time periods and see how this goes. I can monitor twitter on my cell phone or on my computer, and students could then use their cell to just shoot off a quick tweet....without having to log into university email or the LMS to send a message. 


I hesitate to give out my cell phone - this is one of my boundary issues.  I will respond to emails over my phone or to Facebook IMs over my phone, but I am not comfortable giving out my phone number.

Overall, providing students with the opportunity to email me, message me through the LMS or Facebook, tweet, and video-conference with me, I feel I provide multiple methods of contact.

Another item listed under this section in the syllabus rubric is to provide a brief overview of the instructor.  I do that but not in my syllabus.  Instead students can watch a video overview. Posted through screencast, it does not offer closed caption as youtube does, but I am hesitant to have myself available through youtube.  At some point we have to balance student needs with privacy issues.

This syllabus component meets the Enhanced rating on the syllabus design rubric for instructor information.

Course Texts 

Course texts, along with a graphic of their cover, are available on the course syllabus.  ISBNs are provided as well as websites where texts can be purchased. When a text is also available in electronic format, that information is provided as well. I some instances, texts published by certain organizations are cheaper for members, so I include statements about how to find out if their institution is a member.  I also provide a statement regarding the use of ILL at their insitition to borrow a text. 

What I do not do is explain why I have selected a specific text.

This syllabus component meets the Traditional rating on the syllabus design rubric texts component.

Graphic Representation of Outcomes

While my syllabus does connect every activity to a learning outcome, I do not use a graphic representation of the outcomes...although I really like that idea. Student outcomes are posted in our LMS and connected directly to assignments and rubrics, but the graphic representation would be a good addition. 

Course Assignments  (Explanation)

As noted above, the syllabus does clearly state each learning outcome and connects them to every activity in the planner and every assignment, and where possible, links directly to detailed assignment descriptions, rubrics, and due dates.  I do not include examples of coursework as I have found that doing so tends to hamper student creativity.

This syllabus meets the Enhanced rating on the syllabus design rubric assignment - explanation category.

Course Assignments (Examples)

 The syllabus provides detailed instructions regarding how to complete major course projects and activities, including links to video overviews, rubrics, and instructions on scheduling required individual strategy meetings.

This syllabus meets the Exemplary rating on the syllabus design rubric assignment - examples category.

Course Assignments (Submission)

Here is where I one again diverge from UDL. Some assignments such as papers, have to be submitted as an upload to our LMS where I will then grade it online and send students an annotated pdf of their paper, their scored rubric, and  a narrated grading video. some video crafting assignments can use multiple software to create the video while other video assignments require students to use and practice a specific software such as Brainshark.

In the case of Reflective journals, students have a choice among submitting a video, a paper, or an audio file, but students have to submit at least two of each out of the required 10.

Perhaps this is enhanced?  Not sure.

Course Assignments (Grading)

The syllabus provides the grading scale and links to the rubrics for each assignment.

This syllabus meets the Exemplary rating on the syllabus design rubric assignment - grading category.


Course Calendar

Both the syllabus and the LMS use a course calendar, and links are provided throughout. All assignments and activities are posted on the calendar which then posts reminder announcements to students when an assignment is due or overdue.

This syllabus meets the Exemplary rating on the syllabus design rubric course calendar category.

Other UDL items

When providing content, I do so so following a variety of methods. In some instances students read a chapter, then watch a video or interact in a forum, or complete another type of activity.  Sometimes I will provide a list of links and ask students to choose a specific number of those to read or review...then complete an activity.  In some instances they will have a choice of activities - other times, not. I truly depends on the course and the skills  I want them to develop.  I do provide an extensive course resources module which contains technology resources along with content helps and videos.

Multiple pathways are a great approach, particularly for adults who bring a varied background to  each course.  Pre-assessments with unit credit awarded is useful with adults as well.

But this brings us to the question,  how much is too much?

I do not want to inundate students with lengthy syllabi, yet we have to provide a traditional syllabus with rubrics for university assessment purpsoes.  Interactive syllabi are great, but cannot be submitted for assessment, so they are additional  creations. Sometimes we can offer too many choices which can overwhelm students. When offering content with video, text, infographics and other options, information can become redundant...and boring. Pre-assessments are great...but designing activities within courses to incorporate  this can be time-consuming. 

While UDL offers very useful ideas to enhance course design, we need to make sure we are not overwhelming our students AND ourselves.